Introduction to the Topic

In modern Europe, the growth of nationalism was closely linked to the formation of nation-states. It altered people's understanding of who they were, defined their identity, and shaped their sense of belonging. In India, as in many other colonies, the growth of modern nationalism was intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement. People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle with colonialism. Although different groups and classes experienced colonialism differently and their freedom meant different things to them, the Indian National Congress under Mahatma Gandhi attempted to forge these diverse groups together within one unified movement.

Understanding Chapter 2 of Class 10 History, Nationalism in India, is vital because it explains how the Indian freedom struggle evolved from isolated uprisings into a nationwide mass movement. This post breaks down the major events, political strategies, social groups, and ideological shifts that shaped India's path toward independence during the 1920s and 1930s.

Key Concepts Explained

1. The First World War, Satyagraha, and the Rowlatt Act

The First World War (1914–1918) created a new economic and political situation in India:

  • Economic Hardships: War expenditure led to a huge increase in defense budgets, financed by war loans and increasing taxes. Customs duties were raised, and income tax was introduced. Prices doubled between 1913 and 1918, leading to \textreme hardship for common people.
  • Forced Recruitment: Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, causing widespread anger in rural areas.
  • Crop Failures & Epidemics: In 1918–19 and 1920–21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food. This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic in which millions perished.

The Idea of Satyagraha

Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa in January 1915, bringing with him the novel method of mass agitation called Satyagraha. The idea of Satyagraha emphasized the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true and the struggle was against injustice, physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.

Gandhi organized three early successful Satyagraha movements in India:

  • Champaran (Bihar, 1917): Inspired peasants to struggle against the oppressive indigo plantation system.
  • Kheda (Gujarat, 1917): Supported peasants who could not pay revenue due to crop failure and a plague epidemic.
  • Ahmedabad (Gujarat, 1918): Led a movement among cotton mill workers demanding better wages and working conditions.

The Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

In 1919, the imperial government passed the Rowlatt Act despite unanimous opposition from Indian members. The act gave the British government enormous powers to suppress political activities and allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for up to two years.

Gandhi called for a nationwide Rowlatt Satyagraha starting with a hartal on April 6, 1919. Rallies were organized, workers went on strike, and shops closed down. Alarmed by the popular upsurge, the British administration clamped down on nationalists.

On 13 April 1919, the tragic Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place in Amritsar. A large crowd had gathered in an enclosed ground; some to protest the government's repressive measures, others to attend the annual Baisakhi fair. General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and ordered troops to open fire on the unarmed crowd, killing hundreds. This brutality unleashed strikes and clashes across North India, prompting Gandhi to call off the movement as violence spread.

2. Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement

Mahatma Gandhi realized that no broad-based movement could be organized without bringing Hindus and Muslims together. The opportunity came with the Khilafat Issue. The Ottoman Empire had been defeated in World War I, and there were rumors that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman Emperor, who was the spiritual head (Caliph or Khalifa) of the Islamic world.

Two young brothers, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, formed a Khilafat Committee in Bombay in March 1919. At the Nagpur session of the Congress in December 1920, a compromise was reached and the Non-Cooperation Movement was adopted, linking the Khilafat cause with the demand for Swaraj.

How Did Non-Cooperation Unfold?

  • Surrender of Titles: Surrender of government-awarded titles and honors.
  • Boycott: Boycott of civil services, army, police, courts, legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
  • Promotion of Swadeshi: Foreign cloth was burnt in huge bonfires, imports dropped dramatically between 1921 and 1922, and Indian textile mills and handlooms saw increased production.

3. Differing Strands within the Movement

The Non-Cooperation Movement spread across various sections of society, but each group interpreted the meaning of Swaraj differently:

  • In the Towns: Middle-class students left government schools, teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up practice. However, the movement slowed down over time because khadi cloth was often more expensive than mill-made cloth, and alternative Indian institutions were slow to develop.
  • In the Countryside (Peasants): In Awadh, peasants led by Baba Ramchandra revolted against talukdars and landlords who demanded high rents and forced labor (begar). They formed the Oudh Kisan Sabha in 1920 with Jawaharlal Nehru.
  • Tribal Resistance: In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread under Alluri Sitarama Raju, who claimed special powers and led tribals against British forest laws that restricted access to forests.
  • Plantation Workers in Assam: Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave tea gardens without permission. For them, freedom meant the right to move freely and retain a link with their native villages.

4. Towards Civil Disobedience

In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement after the violent Chauri Chaura incident in Gorakhpur, where a peaceful demonstration turned into a clash that resulted in the burning of a police station and deaths of policemen.

The Simon Commission and Purna Swaraj

The British government constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India. When the commission arrived in 1928, it was greeted with the slogan "Go Back Simon" because it did not have a single Indian member.

In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalized the demand for 'Purna Swaraj' or complete independence. It was declared that 26 January 1930 would be celebrated as Independence Day.

5. The Salt March and Civil Disobedience Movement

Mahatma Gandhi found in salt a powerful symbol that could unite the nation. On 31 January 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating 11 demands, including the abolition of the salt tax. Salt was consumed by rich and poor alike, making its monopoly by the state deeply oppressive.

When the demands were ignored, Gandhi started his famous Salt March on March 12, 1930, accompanied by 78 trusted volunteers. They walked 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal town of Dandi. On 6 April 1930, Gandhi manufactured salt by boiling seawater, breaking the law and formally marking the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Key Differences between Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience

  • Non-Cooperation (1920–22): People were asked not to cooperate with the British administration.
  • Civil Disobedience (1930–34): People were asked not only to refuse cooperation but also to break colonial laws openly.

How Social Groups Participated

  • Rich Peasants (Patidars and Jats): Active supporters because falling agricultural prices hit their income; they saw Swaraj as a fight against high revenues.
  • Poor Peasants: Wanted unpaid rent to landlords remitted, though Congress was reluctant to support unpayable rent campaigns for fear of upsetting rich landlords.
  • Business Classes: Led by figures like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress (1920) and FICCI (1927) to protect Indian trade against imports.
  • Industrial Workers: Participation was limited except in Nagpur; workers protested against low wages and poor working conditions.
  • Women: Participated in large numbers, marching in rallies, manufacturing salt, and picketing foreign cloth and liquor shops.

6. Limits of Civil Disobedience & The Sense of Collective Belonging

Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of Swaraj:

  • Dalits / Untouchables: Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who organized the Depressed Classes Association in 1930 and demanded separate electorates. This led to a clash with Gandhi, resolved by the Poona Pact of September 1932, which reserved seats in legislative councils for Depressed Classes within general electorates.
  • Muslim Political Organizations: After the decline of the Khilafat movement, many Muslim leaders grew alienated from the Congress, fearing minority identity would be submerged under Hindu majority rule.

Creating a Sense of Collective Belonging

Nationalism spreads when people believe that they are all part of the same nation. This collective identity was created through:

  • Visual Images: The identity of India was visualized in the figure of Bharat Mata, first painted by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and later by Abanindranath Tagore.
  • Folklore and Songs: Nationalist leaders collected folk tales and ballads to restore pride in traditional culture. Bankim Chandra wrote 'Vande Mataram' in his novel Anandamath.
  • Flags: During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolor flag (red, green, yellow) was designed. In 1921, Gandhi designed the Swaraj flag (red, green, white) with a spinning wheel in the center.
  • Reinterpretation of History: Nationalist writers highlighted India's ancient achievements in science, mathematics, architecture, and trade, encouraging pride in India's glorious past.

Summary & Key Takeaways

  • Roots of Mass Nationalism: World War I created economic distress, paving the way for Mahatma Gandhi's Satyagraha.
  • Rowlatt Act & Jallianwala Bagh: Repressive British policies sparked widespread outrage, leading directly to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
  • Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22): United Hindus and Muslims under the Khilafat banner, involving student boycotts and economic strikes until called off after Chauri Chaura.
  • Salt March (1930): Transformed salt into a unifying symbol, launching the nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement.
  • Diverse Visions of Freedom: Different socio-economic groups (peasants, tribals, industrialists, workers, women) had unique expectations of Swaraj.
  • Cultural Nationalism: Icons like Bharat Mata, patriotic literature, traditional folklore, and the Swaraj flag fostered a shared sense of national identity.