NCERT Explained: Class XII History, Theme 3 - Kinship, Caste and Class: Early Societies

Introduction to the Topic

Between 600 BCE and 600 CE, the Indian subcontinent witnessed significant changes in economic and political life. These changes often had deep-seated impacts on the social fabric of the time. While we often focus on the rise of empires like the Mauryas or the Guptas, it is equally important to understand how people lived, how families were structured, and how social hierarchies like caste and class were formed. In this chapter, we explore 'Social Histories' through the lens of one of the world's greatest epics: the Mahabharata.

History is not just about kings and battles; it is about the rules that governed everyday life. Historians use various sources to reconstruct social history, including inscriptions and legal texts like the Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras. However, the Mahabharata remains the most important source for this period because it reflects the social values, conflicts, and norms of the era. It wasn't just a story; it was a dynamic text that evolved over centuries, capturing the complexities of human relationships and societal expectations.

Key Concepts Explained

1. The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata

In 1919, a massive project began under the leadership of the noted Indian Sanskritist V.S. Sukthankar. The goal was to prepare a critical edition of the Mahabharata. Scholars collected Sanskrit manuscripts from all over the country—from Kashmir in the north to Kerala in the south. They compared the verses and selected those that were common to most versions. This project took 47 years and resulted in 13,000 pages of text. This exercise proved that while there were regional variations, there was a core narrative that remained consistent across the subcontinent, showing a shared cultural framework.

2. Kinship and Marriage: The Rules of Society

Kinship refers to the relationship between family members. In early societies, families were often part of larger networks called kinfolk. One of the most important concepts was Patriliny, which means tracing descent from father to son, grandson, and so on. In this system, sons could claim the resources (and the throne, in the case of kings) of their fathers. Most royal dynasties followed this rule, though there were variations.

The role of women in kinship was different. Daughters were viewed differently from sons; they had no claim to the paternal estate. This led to the emergence of specific rules for marriage:

• Endogamy: Marriage within a unit (kin group, caste, or locality).
• Exogamy: Marriage outside the unit (often meaning marrying outside one's own gotra).
• Polygyny: The practice of a man having several wives.
• Polyandry: The practice of a woman having several husbands (as seen in the case of Draupadi).

3. The Gotra of Women

From around 1000 BCE, Brahmins classified people into gotras, named after Vedic seers. Two main rules applied: women were expected to give up their father's gotra and adopt their husband's gotra upon marriage, and members of the same gotra could not marry. However, historical evidence (like the Satavahana inscriptions) shows that these rules were not always followed. Some Satavahana queens retained their father's names, showing that Brahmanical norms were sometimes contested or ignored in practice.

4. The Varna System and Social Hierarchy

To justify social differences, Brahmins evolved a system known as Varna. They claimed this system was of divine origin, citing the 'Purusha Sukta' from the Rig Veda. The society was divided into four categories:

• Brahmins: At the top, expected to study and teach the Vedas, and perform sacrifices.
• Kshatriyas: The warrior class, expected to protect people, administer justice, and rule.
• Vaishyas: Engaged in agriculture, pastoralism, and trade.
• Shudras: Assigned only one task—to serve the higher three varnas.

Interestingly, while the texts said only Kshatriyas could be kings, history tells a different story. The Mauryas are often debated (some say they were Shudras), and the Shungas and Kanvas were Brahmins. This shows that political power was open to anyone who could muster support and resources, regardless of birth.

5. Beyond the Four Varnas: Jatis and Untouchability

While Varna was fixed at four, there were many other groups that did not fit into this framework. These were called Jatis. Jatis were often based on occupation (like the Nishadas who lived in forests or Suvarnakaras/goldsmiths).

A more harsh aspect of this hierarchy was the concept of 'Untouchability'. Some activities—especially those involving handling corpses or dead animals—were considered 'polluting'. Those who performed these tasks were called Chandalas. The Manusmriti laid down strict rules for them: they had to live outside the village, use discarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead. Chinese pilgrims like Fa Xian and Xuan Zang noted that 'untouchables' had to sound a clapper in the streets so that people could avoid seeing them.

6. Gendered Access to Property

Social differences were also sharp regarding wealth. According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally among sons after the parents' death, with a special share for the eldest. Women, however, could not claim a share of this. But women were allowed to retain Stridhana (gifts received at the time of marriage), which they could pass on to their children without their husbands having a claim over it. Despite this, legal texts warned women against hoarding family property or valuables without permission.

7. The Mahabharata: A Dynamic Text

The Mahabharata is not a static book. It grew over a period of roughly 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE to 500 CE). It was originally composed by Sutas (bardic storytellers) who accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield. Later, from the 5th century BCE, Brahmins took over the story and committed it to writing. The text contains both 'narrative' (the story) and 'didactic' (social instructions, like the Bhagavad Gita). Its versatility allowed it to be adapted into various plays, dances, and art forms across India, making it a truly 'living' epic.

Summary & Key Takeaways

• Diversity of Sources: Historians use the Mahabharata and legal texts (Dharmashastras) to reconstruct the social history of 600 BCE to 600 CE.
• Patriliny and Marriage: Patriliny was the norm for inheritance, while marriage rules like exogamy and the gotra system dictated social alliances.
• Social Stratification: The Varna system created a rigid hierarchy, but Jatis and the reality of 'non-Kshatriya' kings show that the system was more complex in practice.
• Marginalization: The creation of 'untouchability' and the restriction of women's property rights highlight the inequalities present in early Indian society.
• Epic Influence: The Mahabharata is a dynamic text that reflects both the social norms and the conflicts arising from the violation of those norms.