NCERT Explained: Class VII History, Chapter 2 - New Kings and Kingdoms

Introduction to the Topic

Have you ever wondered how the political map of India came to look the way it does today? If we could travel back in time to the medieval period—specifically between the seventh and twelfth centuries—we would see a subcontinent dynamic, fragmented, and bursting with new political energy. This was an era of transition. The great, centralized empires of ancient India had given way to a vibrant patchwork of regional kingdoms. Powerful warriors, ambitious landlords, and influential priests were rewriting the rules of power, wealth, and status.

In Chapter 2 of the Class VII NCERT History textbook, 'New Kings and Kingdoms', we explore this fascinating era of transformation. We will witness the rise of proud new dynasties like the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas, and Chahamanas (later known as the Chauhans). We will dive into how these rulers built complex administrative systems, used religious rituals to legitimize their rule, waged epic wars for legendary cities, and constructed architectural wonders that still stand today. Let's embark on this historical journey to understand how these medieval kingdoms shaped the heritage of India.

Key Concepts Explained

1. The Emergence of New Dynasties

By the seventh century, the political landscape of India was changing. Throughout the subcontinent, there were existing landlords or warrior chiefs whom the ruling kings acknowledged as their subordinates, or samantas. These samantas were expected to bring gifts for their kings, provide military support during wars, and attend the royal courts to show their loyalty.

However, power has a way of shifting. As these samantas gained wealth and military strength, many of them declared themselves independent. They took grand titles like maha-samanta (the great subordinate) or maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a circle or region). Sometimes, they even overthrew their own lords to establish their own independent dynasties.

• The Rise of the Rashtrakutas: A prime example of this power shift occurred in the Deccan. The Rashtrakutas were initially subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, a Rashtrakuta chief named Dantidurga overthrew his Chalukya overlord. To cement his new status, he performed a special ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). It was believed that performing this ritual with the help of Brahmanas led to the 'rebirth' of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth. This shows how religious rituals were used to bypass strict caste boundaries for political legitimacy.
• Enterprising Families: Men from enterprising families used their military skills to carve out kingdoms. For example, Kadamba Mayurasharman (in Karnataka) and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra (in Rajasthan) were Brahmanas who gave up their traditional professions, took up arms, and successfully established flourishing kingdoms.

2. Administration in the New Kingdoms

Once these new kings established their rule, they adopted grand, high-sounding titles to assert their supremacy. You would frequently hear rulers called Maharajadhiraja (great king, king of kings) or Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds). Yet, despite these boastful titles, kings could not rule entirely on their own. They had to share power with their samantas, as well as with associations of peasants, traders, and Brahmanas.

But how did these massive medieval states fund their armies, build their palaces, and maintain their courts? The answer lies in a highly organized system of taxation and resource extraction:

• Resources from Producers: The wealth of the kingdom was extracted from the actual producers—the peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans. They were persuaded, and sometimes forced, to surrender a part of what they produced. This was often treated as 'rent' paid to the king, who claimed ownership of the land.
• The Chola Taxes: The inscriptions of the Cholas of Tamil Nadu mention more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes! The most frequently mentioned tax is vetti, which was not taken in cash but in the form of forced labor. Another major tax was kadamai, which refers to land revenue. Taxes were also levied on nesting houses, using ladders to climb palm trees, and even on succession to family property.
• Use of Revenue: The money collected from these taxes was not just used to maintain the king's luxurious household. It was also used to build grand temples and forts, and to finance wars. Wars, in turn, were seen as a way to acquire more wealth through plunder and to gain control over lucrative trade routes.

3. Prashastis and Land Grants

If you wanted to know how medieval kings saw themselves, you would read a prashasti. The word prashasti is a Sanskrit term meaning 'in praise of'. These were compositions written by learned Brahmanas in glowing, poetic Sanskrit to depict the rulers as valiant, victorious warriors.

However, we must read prashastis with a critical eye. They were not always literally true. Instead, they showed how the kings *wished* to be projected. For example, a famous prashasti found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, praises the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata, claiming that kings of Andhra, Saindhava (Sind), Vidarbha (part of Maharashtra), and Kalinga (Odisha) fell before him even when he was a prince!

In return for these flattering compositions, kings rewarded Brahmanas with generous grants of land. These land grants were carefully recorded on copper plates, which were secured with a royal seal to prove their authenticity. These plates were given to the Brahmanas who received the land, granting them the right to collect taxes from the local population, build houses, dig wells, and plant trees on that land.

4. Warfare for Wealth

In the medieval world, wealth was often acquired through conquest. Dynasties were not content with just ruling their own territories; they constantly eyed the resources of their neighbors. This led to persistent, destructive warfare.

• The Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj: For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for control over the city of Kanauj in the fertile Ganga valley. Because there were three parties involved in this long-running conflict, historians refer to it as the 'Tripartite Struggle'. The city was highly prized because whoever controlled Kanauj controlled the trade and agricultural wealth of the entire Ganga plain.
• Targeting Temples: Because kings built large, wealthy temples to demonstrate their power and devotion, these temples became the primary targets when kingdoms invaded one another. The most famous example is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, a ruler from Afghanistan who ruled from 997 to 1030 CE. He conducted raids into the Indian subcontinent almost every year, targeting wealthy temple towns like Vrindavan, Mathura, and the incredibly rich temple of Somnath in Gujarat. Much of the wealth he plundered was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni. Mahmud was also interested in knowing more about the people he conquered, so he commissioned a scholar named Al-Biruni to write an Arabic account of the subcontinent, titled Kitab-al-Hind, which remains an invaluable source for historians today.
• The Chahamanas (Chauhans): Another group of rulers who engaged in warfare were the Chahamanas, who ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They attempted to expand their territory to the west and the east, where they were opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh. The most famous Chahamana ruler was Prithviraj III (1168–1192), who defeated the Afghan invader Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 in the First Battle of Tarain, but lost to him the very next year in 1192, changing the course of Indian history.

5. A Closer Look: The Cholas

To understand how a medieval Indian empire functioned at its peak, we must look closely at the Cholas, who established a highly sophisticated and powerful state in southern India.

How the Cholas Rose to Power

The Cholas originated as a minor family of chiefs known as the Muttaraiyar, who held power in the Kaveri delta and were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. In the middle of the ninth century, Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient ruling family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar. He built the town of Thanjavur and constructed a beautiful temple for the goddess Nishumbhasudini there.

Vijayalaya's successors expanded the kingdom by conquering neighboring regions of the Pandyan and Pallava territories. The empire reached its zenith under Rajaraja I, considered one of the most powerful Chola rulers, who became king in 985 CE. He reorganized the administration of the empire and expanded control over vast areas. His son, Rajendra I, continued his father's expansionist policies. He even raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and countries of Southeast Asia, developing a powerful navy to support these overseas expeditions.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture

The Chola rulers were magnificent builders. The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural and sculptural marvels. These temples were not just places of worship; they were the hubs of social, economic, and cultural life:

• Centers of Settlement: Settlements grew around these temples. Temples were endowed with vast tracts of land by rulers as well as by wealthy merchants.
• The Temple Economy: The produce of the temple lands went to maintain all the specialists who worked at the temple and lived nearby—priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, and artisans. Thus, temples became centers of economic activity and employment.
• Chola Bronze Images: Amongst the crafts associated with Chola temples, the making of bronze images stands out. Chola bronze sculptures are universally recognized as some of the finest in the world. While most images were of deities, sometimes exquisite images of devoted followers were also made using the intricate lost-wax technique.

Agriculture and Irrigation

Much of the success of the Chola empire was built on agricultural prosperity, particularly in the fertile delta of the Kaveri River. Before emptying into the Bay of Bengal, the Kaveri river branches off into several small channels. These channels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their banks. The water from these channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice.

To maximize this agricultural potential, the Cholas undertook massive irrigation projects:

• Forests were cleared in some regions, and land was leveled to bring it under cultivation.
• In the delta region, embankments (dykes) were built to prevent flooding, and canals were constructed to carry water directly to the agricultural fields. In many areas, two crops were grown in a single year.
• A variety of methods were used for artificial irrigation. In some places, deep wells were dug. In others, huge tanks were constructed to collect rainwater. Managing these water resources required careful planning, organization of labor, and shared decision-making among village communities.

Administration of the Chola Empire

How did the Cholas manage to keep such a vast and prosperous empire running smoothly? The secret lay in their highly organized administrative structure:

• Ur and Nadu: Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became very prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups of these villages formed larger administrative units called nadu. The village council and the nadu performed several administrative functions, including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
• The Role of Rich Peasants: Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government. The Chola kings respected rich landowners by giving them titles like muvendavelan (a peasant serving three kings) and araiyar (chief), trusting them with important offices of the state.
• Types of Land: Chola inscriptions record several categories of land:
  • Vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
  • Brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas. As a result of these gifts, a large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the Kaveri valley.
  • Shalabhoga: Land maintained for the school.
  • Devadana / Tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples.
  • Pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jaina institutions.
• The Sabha System: Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landowners. These assemblies worked very efficiently, and their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples.

The famous Uttaramerur inscription in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provides a fascinating, detailed look at how these sabhas were organized. The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, and more. But how were committee members chosen? It was a unique, democratic process:

• The names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf.
• These tickets were put into an earthenware pot.
• A young boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one, for each committee. The person whose name was drawn became a member.
• To prevent corruption, there were strict eligibility criteria. To be a member, one had to own land, have a house, be between 35 and 70 years of age, have knowledge of the Vedas, be well-versed in administrative matters, and have clean accounts. Anyone who had been a member of any committee in the last three years could not contest again!

Summary & Key Takeaways

The period between the 7th and 12th centuries was a crucial formative era in Indian history. Here are the key takeaways to remember from this chapter:

• Samantas to Sovereigns: Regional military chiefs (samantas) grew powerful, asserted independence, and established new dynasties (e.g., Dantidurga performing the hiranya-garbha ritual).
• Revenue Extraction: Medieval states were highly centralized around taxation. Hundreds of types of taxes (like vetti and kadamai) were collected to fund armies, temples, and kingdoms.
• The Power of Praise: Prashastis were laudatory texts written by Brahmanas to glorify kings. In return, kings gifted them tax-free land, recorded on royal copper plates.
• Resource Conflicts: Warfare was a common method of acquiring wealth. Major conflicts included the Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj, Mahmud of Ghazni's devastating raids on Indian temples, and the battles of Prithviraj Chauhan against Muhammad Ghori.
• The Chola Legacy: The Cholas built a massive empire powered by agricultural advancements in the Kaveri delta, grand temples (like Thanjavur), unparalleled bronze sculpture, and a meticulous, semi-democratic local administration managed by the *ur*, *nadu*, and *sabha*.