Introduction to the Topic

Imagine living in a world without electricity, supermarkets, or even a permanent roof over your head. This was the reality for our ancestors millions of years ago. In Class VI History, Chapter 2 - From Hunting-Gathering to Growing Food, we embark on a fascinating journey back in time to understand how humans evolved from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers. This transition is one of the most significant milestones in human history, often referred to as the Neolithic Revolution. It changed how people lived, what they ate, and how they organized their societies. By studying this chapter, students gain insights into the resourcefulness of early humans and the gradual process of discovery that led to the civilization we know today.

Key Concepts Explained

To understand the lives of the earliest people, we must first look at who they were and why they lived the way they did. The people who lived in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago are described as hunter-gatherers. This name comes from the way they got their food: they hunted wild animals, caught fish and birds, and gathered fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks, and eggs.

Why did Hunter-Gatherers Move?

Hunter-gatherers did not stay in one place for long. They were constantly on the move for four main reasons:

  • Depletion of Resources: If they stayed in one place for a long time, they would have eaten up all the available plant and animal resources in that area. Therefore, they had to go elsewhere in search of food.
  • Following Animal Movements: Animals move from place to place—either in search of smaller prey or, in the case of herbivores, in search of grass and leaves. Those who hunted them had to follow their movements.
  • Seasonal Availability: Plants and trees bear fruit in different seasons. So, people may have moved from season to season in search of different kinds of plants.
  • The Need for Water: People, plants, and animals need water to survive. While many rivers and lakes are perennial (have water throughout the year), others are seasonal. People living on their banks would have had to go in search of water during the dry seasons.

How do we know about these people?

Archaeologists have found some of the things hunter-gatherers made and used. It is likely that people made and used tools of stone, wood, and bone, of which stone tools have survived best. These tools were used to cut meat and bone, scrape bark (from trees) and hides (animal skins), chop fruit and roots. Some may have been attached to handles of bone or wood to make spears and arrows for hunting. Other tools were used to chop wood, which was used as firewood. Wood was also used to make huts and tools.

Choosing a Place to Live

Early humans looked for places where good quality stone was easily available, as stones were vital for their survival. Many such sites are found near sources of water, such as rivers and lakes. One famous site is Bhimbetka (in present-day Madhya Pradesh). This is an old site with caves and rock shelters. People chose these natural caves because they provided shelter from the rain, heat, and wind. These rock shelters are close to the Narmada valley.

The Discovery of Fire

Traces of ash have been found in the Kurnool caves. This suggests that people were familiar with the use of fire. Fire could have been used for many things: as a source of light, to roast meat, and to scare away animals. The discovery of fire was a revolutionary step that provided warmth and protection, further altering human lifestyle.

A Changing Environment

Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the world, with a shift to relatively warm conditions. In many areas, this led to the development of grasslands. This, in turn, led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep, and cattle—animals that survived on grass. Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about their food habits and their breeding seasons. It is likely that this helped people to start thinking about herding and rearing these animals themselves. Fishing also became important.

The Beginnings of Farming and Herding

This was also a time when several grain-bearing grasses, including wheat, barley, and rice, grew naturally in different parts of the subcontinent. Men, women, and children probably collected these grains as food and learned where they grew and when they ripened. This may have led them to think about growing plants on their own. In this way, people became farmers.

People could also attract and then tame animals by leaving food for them near their shelters. The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog. Later, people encouraged animals that were relatively gentle to come near the camps where they lived. These animals, such as sheep, goat, cattle, and also the pig, lived in herds, and most of them ate grass. Often, people protected these animals from attacks by other wild animals. This is how they became herders.

Domestication

Domestication is the name given to the process in which people grow plants and look after animals. Very often, plants and animals that are tended by people become different from wild plants and animals. This is because people select plants and animals for domestication. For example, they select those plants and animals that are not prone to disease. They also select plants that yield large-size grain and have strong stalks, capable of bearing the weight of the ripe grain. Seeds from selected plants are preserved and sown to ensure that new plants (and seeds) will have the same qualities.

A New Way of Life

If you plant a seed, you will notice that it takes some time to grow. This may be for several days, weeks, months, and in some cases, years. When people began growing plants, it meant that they had to stay in the same place for a long time looking after the plants—watering, weeding, driving away animals and birds—until the grain ripened. And then, the grain had to be used carefully. As grain had to be stored for both food and seed, people had to think of ways of storing it. In many areas, they began making large clay pots, or wove baskets, or dug pits into the ground.

Towards a Settled Life

Archaeologists have found traces of huts or houses at some sites. For instance, in Burzahom (in present-day Kashmir), people built pit-houses, which were dug into the ground, with steps leading into them. These may have provided shelter in cold weather. Archaeologists have also found cooking hearths both inside and outside the huts, suggesting that, depending on the weather, people could cook food either indoors or outdoors.

Stone tools have been found from many sites as well. Many of these are different from the earlier Palaeolithic tools and that is why they are called Neolithic. These include tools that were polished to give a fine cutting edge, and mortars and pestles used for grinding grain and other plant produce. Mortars and pestles are used for grinding grain even today, several thousand years later. At the same time, tools of the Palaeolithic types continued to be made and used, and remember, some tools were also made of bone.

A Closer Look: Mehrgarh

One of the most important sites for understanding the transition to agriculture is Mehrgarh. This site is located in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass, which is one of the most important routes into Iran. Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where people learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear sheep and goats for the first time in this area. It is one of the earliest villages that we know about.

At this site, many animal bones were found. Bones of wild animals such as the pig and deer, and also bones of sheep and goat were found. Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains of square or rectangular houses. Each house had four or more compartments, some of which may have been used for storage. When people die, their relatives and friends generally pay respect to them. People look after them, perhaps in the belief that there is some form of life after death. Burial is one such arrangement. Several burial sites have been found at Mehrgarh. In one instance, the dead person was buried with goats, which were probably meant to serve as food in the next world.

Summary & Key Takeaways

  • Transition: Human history moved from the nomadic Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) to the settled Neolithic (New Stone Age).
  • Movement Factors: Early humans moved due to food scarcity, animal migration, seasonal changes, and water needs.
  • Technological Progress: Tools evolved from crude stones to polished, specialized Neolithic tools. The discovery of fire was a major turning point.
  • Climate Impact: Environmental warming 12,000 years ago promoted grasslands and led to the domestication of plants and animals.
  • Settled Life: Farming required people to stay in one place, leading to the construction of permanent shelters (like pit-houses in Burzahom) and storage solutions (pottery).
  • Archaeological Sites: Sites like Bhimbetka, Mehrgarh, and Burzahom provide vital evidence of our ancestors' lifestyles.
  • Cultural Beliefs: Burials in Mehrgarh suggest early humans believed in an afterlife.