NCERT Explained: Class XII History, Theme 13 - Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement

Introduction to the Topic

Welcome, students! Today, we delve into one of the most transformative periods of modern Indian history, as detailed in Theme 13 of your Class XII NCERT History textbook, 'Themes in Indian History Part III'. This chapter, 'Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement: Civil Disobedience and Beyond', is not just a chronicle of events; it's the story of how one man, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, returned to India and completely reshaped the freedom struggle. Before his arrival from South Africa in 1915, the Indian nationalist movement was largely confined to the educated elite in cities. Gandhi transformed it into a powerful, nationwide mass movement that involved peasants, workers, artisans, and women from all corners of the country. This chapter focuses on the crucial period from 1915 to 1948, tracing Gandhi’s journey and the evolution of the movements he led. Understanding this chapter is essential to grasp the soul of India's fight for independence and the principles that formed the bedrock of the new nation.

Key Concepts Explained

A Leader Announces Himself: The Return and Early Years

When Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India in January 1915, he was already a well-known figure. His successful struggles against racial discrimination in South Africa, using a novel method called Satyagraha (truth force), had earned him international repute. However, the India he returned to was vastly different from the one he had left. His political mentor, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, advised him to spend his first year traveling across the country to 'know India' before taking any political stance. Gandhi followed this advice meticulously, journeying by train, interacting with common people, and observing their lives and hardships. This journey gave him a profound understanding of the real India, beyond the circles of elite politicians.

His first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916. The event was a gathering of India’s most powerful and wealthy elite, including princes and philanthropists. In his speech, Gandhi chose not to praise the grandeur but to deliver a sharp critique. He expressed his concern for the millions of poor farmers and labourers who were absent from this grand event. He argued that the salvation of India would not come from the elite but from the empowerment of its farmers. “There can be no spirit of self-government about us,” he declared, “if we take away or allow others to take away from the peasants almost the whole of the results of their labour.” This speech was a clear statement of his intent: he was here to represent the voiceless millions and to make the nationalist movement truly representative of the Indian people.

The First Localised Satyagrahas: Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda

Before launching nationwide movements, Gandhi tested his methods of Satyagraha in three localised disputes. These campaigns not only proved the efficacy of his techniques but also established him as a leader with a deep connection to the masses.

• Champaran Satyagraha (1917): In the Champaran district of Bihar, peasants were forced by British planters to cultivate indigo on a portion of their land under the oppressive tinkathia system, often at prices that left them in debt. Raj Kumar Shukla, a local peasant, persuaded Gandhi to visit and investigate their plight. Despite resistance from the British administration, Gandhi's systematic inquiry and readiness to face arrest forced the government to form a committee (of which Gandhi was a member) that ultimately abolished the oppressive system. This was his first major victory in India.
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): The next intervention was in his home state of Gujarat. A dispute arose between textile mill workers and owners in Ahmedabad over a 'plague bonus'. The workers demanded a wage hike, which the owners refused. Gandhi advised the workers to go on a non-violent strike. To bolster their morale when the strike began to weaken, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death. This put immense moral pressure on the mill owners, who soon agreed to a settlement, and the workers' demands were met.
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918): In the same year, the farmers of Kheda district in Gujarat were facing crop failure due to floods and were in no position to pay the high taxes imposed by the British. They pleaded for tax remission, but the government refused. Gandhi, along with Vallabhbhai Patel, organised the peasants and advised them to withhold tax payments. The non-violent protest and the unity of the farmers eventually compelled the government to relent and agree to suspend taxes for that year.

These three campaigns—Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda—cemented Gandhi's reputation as a leader of the people, a 'Mahatma' who could fight for their cause and win.

The First All-India Campaigns: Rowlatt Satyagraha and Non-Cooperation

Buoyed by the success of his local campaigns, Gandhi was ready to launch a movement on a national scale. The opportunity came in 1919 with the draconian Rowlatt Act, which allowed the British to imprison any person without trial on the suspicion of terrorism.

The Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919)

Gandhi saw the Rowlatt Act as a betrayal of the promises of reform made by the British during World War I. He called for a nationwide hartal (strike) and Satyagraha against this 'Black Act'. The response was overwhelming. For the first time, people across the country participated in a unified protest. However, the protests in Punjab turned violent. The British responded with brutal force, culminating in the horrific Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar on April 13, 1919. General Dyer ordered his troops to fire on a peaceful, unarmed crowd gathered for a Baisakhi festival, killing hundreds. This event shocked the nation and shattered any remaining faith in British justice. The Rowlatt Satyagraha, though short-lived, was a crucial turning point, demonstrating the potential for a nationwide mass struggle.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

In the aftermath of Jallianwala Bagh and with the British government's failure to address the wrongs of the Punjab incident and the Khilafat issue (a movement to restore the Caliph of Turkey, which had broad Muslim support in India), Gandhi proposed a new, more intense form of struggle: Non-Cooperation. The idea was simple yet profound: the British rule in India survived only because Indians cooperated with it. If Indians refused to cooperate, the British Raj would collapse within a year. The movement, launched in 1920, had two key aspects:

• Boycott: Students left government schools and colleges, lawyers boycotted courts, and people resigned from government jobs. The most visible aspect was the boycott of foreign goods, especially textiles. Huge bonfires of foreign cloth became a common sight.
• Constructive Programme: Gandhi promoted the use of khadi (hand-spun, hand-woven cloth) and the charkha (spinning wheel) as symbols of self-reliance and economic independence. He also stressed Hindu-Muslim unity and the removal of untouchability.

The Non-Cooperation Movement was a phenomenal success in terms of mass participation. It drew in peasants, workers, students, and women, and for the first time, the freedom struggle reached the remote villages of India. However, in February 1922, a tragic incident occurred at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, where a protesting crowd, provoked by the police, attacked and burnt down a police station, killing 22 policemen. A firm believer in non-violence (Ahimsa), Gandhi was deeply pained by this act and immediately called off the movement. While many leaders criticised this decision, Gandhi was adamant that a movement based on violence could not achieve true Swaraj.

The Salt Satyagraha: A March that Shook an Empire

After a few years of relative quiet, the nationalist movement surged again. The British government appointed the all-white Simon Commission in 1927 to suggest constitutional reforms, but the exclusion of any Indian member was seen as a grave insult. Protests erupted across the country with the slogan 'Go Back Simon'. In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress session passed the historic resolution of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) and declared 26th January 1930 as Independence Day.

To achieve this goal, Gandhi decided to launch a new movement: the Civil Disobedience Movement. He needed a symbol that could unite every Indian, rich or poor, Hindu or Muslim. He found it in salt. The British government had a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt and imposed a tax on it. This tax affected every single person in India. Gandhi declared his intention to break this unjust salt law.

On March 12, 1930, Gandhi began his famous Dandi March from his Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal village of Dandi, a distance of over 240 miles. He started with just 78 followers, but thousands joined him along the way. The march received extensive coverage in the national and international press. On April 6, he reached Dandi, picked up a handful of salt from the seashore, and symbolically broke the salt law. This simple act was a signal to the entire nation. Across India, people began making salt, breaking the law, and challenging British authority. The movement spread rapidly. People defied forest laws, refused to pay taxes, and boycotted foreign goods. The participation of women, led by figures like Sarojini Naidu, was particularly remarkable. The British responded with a brutal crackdown, arresting over 60,000 people, including Gandhi. The Dandi March and the subsequent Salt Satyagraha were a masterpiece of political strategy, exposing the unjust nature of British rule to the world and demonstrating the power of non-violent mass protest.

The Final Phase: Quit India and the Last Heroic Days

The 1930s saw further negotiations like the Round Table Conferences and the Government of India Act of 1935, but the goal of complete independence remained distant. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 brought the struggle to its final, decisive phase.

The Quit India Movement (1942)

The British dragged India into the war without consulting its leaders. In 1942, the failure of the Cripps Mission, which offered only Dominion Status after the war, exhausted Indian patience. At the All India Congress Committee session in Bombay in August 1942, Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement. He gave the nation the powerful slogan: “Do or Die”. He urged the people to act as if they were free and to not obey the orders of the British.

The government responded swiftly, arresting Gandhi and the entire Congress leadership overnight. The leaderless public, however, erupted in a massive, spontaneous revolt. There were strikes, demonstrations, and attacks on government symbols like post offices, railway stations, and police stations. In many places, parallel governments were set up. The movement was particularly strong in areas like eastern UP, Bihar, and Bengal. Though the British managed to crush the rebellion with immense force, the Quit India Movement demonstrated the determination of the Indian people. It made it clear that British rule in India could not last much longer.

Independence, Partition, and Gandhi's Final Sacrifice

The end of World War II saw the British government finally willing to negotiate independence. However, the political landscape was complicated by the Muslim League's demand for a separate nation, Pakistan. The years 1946-47 were marked by horrific communal violence. Gandhi, who had worked his entire life for Hindu-Muslim unity, was deeply heartbroken. While other leaders were in Delhi negotiating the terms of transfer of power, Gandhi was touring the riot-torn villages of Noakhali (in Bengal) and Bihar, walking barefoot, trying to stop the violence and bring peace. He observed a fast in Calcutta which had a miraculous effect, calming the city.

When India became independent on 15th August 1947, it was a day of triumph but also of tragedy due to the Partition. Gandhi was not in Delhi for the celebrations. He was in Calcutta, fighting for peace. After Partition, he moved to Delhi, where he was distressed by the violence against Muslims. He began a fast to pressure the Indian government to ensure the safety of Muslims and to release the share of assets owed to Pakistan. His fast succeeded, but it angered Hindu extremists who saw him as an appeaser of Muslims.

On January 30, 1948, while on his way to a prayer meeting in Delhi, he was assassinated by Nathuram Godse. Gandhi’s death sent a wave of shock and grief across the world. His life, his methods, and his message of truth, non-violence, and selfless service remain a powerful legacy for India and the world.

Summary & Key Takeaways

To revise this crucial chapter effectively, remember these key points:

• Transformation of Nationalism: Gandhi's arrival in 1915 marked a shift in the Indian freedom struggle from an elite-dominated movement to a mass-based struggle involving people from all sections of society.
• Method of Satyagraha: His core philosophy was Satyagraha (insistence on truth) combined with Ahimsa (non-violence). This was first tested in local struggles at Champaran (1917), Ahmedabad (1918), and Kheda (1918).
• The Three Great Mass Movements:
  • Non-Cooperation (1920-22): A nationwide movement based on boycotting British institutions, which was called off after the Chauri Chaura incident.
  • Civil Disobedience (1930-34): Initiated by the iconic Dandi Salt March, it involved the open and peaceful defiance of unjust laws.
  • Quit India (1942): A spontaneous and widespread movement with the slogan 'Do or Die', which fatally weakened the foundations of British rule.
• A People's Leader: Gandhi connected with the common people through his simple lifestyle (wearing a dhoti), use of the charkha as a symbol of self-reliance, and his focus on issues that affected the daily lives of the poor.
• Final Years and Legacy: In his last days, Gandhi worked tirelessly to quell the violence of Partition. His assassination was a tragic end, but his ideals of peace, unity, and non-violence continue to inspire generations.