NCERT Explained: Class XII Political Science, Chapter 6 - International Organisations

Introduction to the Topic

Have you ever wondered how the world manages to avoid a massive global conflict even when different countries have opposing interests? While we often hear about wars and disputes in the news, there is a complex network of cooperation happening behind the scenes. This cooperation is facilitated by International Organisations. In Class XII Political Science, Chapter 6, we delve into the world of these global bodies, specifically focusing on the United Nations (UN).

International organisations are not 'super-states' with power over all nations; rather, they are platforms created by states to solve problems that no single country can solve alone. Whether it is tackling climate change, managing global pandemics, or preventing nuclear proliferation, international organisations provide the necessary framework for collective action. This chapter explores why we need these organisations, how the UN has evolved, and the challenges it faces in a post-Cold War world dominated by a few major powers.

Key Concepts Explained

1. Why Do We Need International Organisations?

The primary reason for the existence of international organisations is cooperation. Most problems today are global in nature. Consider a disease like COVID-19 or the threat of global warming. No single nation, no matter how powerful, can stop a virus or lower the Earth's temperature by itself. International organisations help in two major ways:

• Managing Conflict: As Dag Hammarskjöld, the second UN Secretary-General, famously said, "The UN was not created to take mankind to heaven, but to save humanity from hell." These organisations provide a space for 'jaw-jaw' (discussion) instead of 'war-war.'
• Providing Information and Rules: They help set standards and gather data that all countries can trust, making it easier to trade, travel, and communicate across borders.

2. The Evolution of the United Nations

The United Nations was not the first attempt at global governance. After the horrors of the First World War, the League of Nations was formed. However, it failed to prevent the Second World War. Following the end of WWII in 1945, the United Nations was established by 51 states signing the UN Charter. Its main goal was to prevent future international conflicts and facilitate cooperation among states.

Over the decades, the UN has grown to include almost every independent country in the world (193 member states as of recent counts). Its structure is designed to balance the interests of all nations while acknowledging the reality of power politics.

3. Main Organs of the United Nations

The UN operates through several specialized organs, each with a unique mandate:

• General Assembly: Think of this as the 'parliament' of the world. Every member state has one vote, and all are equal here. It discusses major global issues and makes recommendations.
• Security Council: This is the most powerful organ. It has 15 members: 5 permanent (P5) and 10 non-permanent members elected for two-year terms. The P5 members are the USA, Russia, UK, France, and China.
• Secretariat: Led by the Secretary-General, this is the administrative heart of the UN that carries out the daily work of the organisation.
• International Court of Justice (ICJ): Located in The Hague, it settles legal disputes between states.
• Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Coordinates the economic and social work of the UN and its specialized agencies.

4. The Veto Power Controversy

One of the most debated features of the UN is the Veto Power held by the five permanent members of the Security Council. If any one of the P5 members votes 'no' on a substantive resolution, the resolution cannot pass, even if all other 14 members vote for it. While this ensures that the most powerful nations stay involved with the UN, many argue it is undemocratic and prevents the UN from acting in crises where the interests of the P5 are involved.

5. Reform of the UN after the Cold War

The world has changed significantly since 1945. The Soviet Union has collapsed, the US is a dominant power, China is rising rapidly, and many Asian and African economies are growing. Because of these changes, there are loud calls for UN Reform, focusing on two areas:

• Reform of Structures and Processes: There is a major demand to increase the number of permanent and non-permanent members of the Security Council to reflect contemporary global realities.
• Review of Issues: Some want the UN to play a greater role in peace and security, while others (mainly developing nations) want it to focus more on development, health, and education.

In 1992, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution highlighting that the Security Council no longer represents contemporary political realities. Since then, countries like India, Japan, Germany, and Brazil have staked their claims for permanent seats.

6. Jurisdiction and the 'Responsibility to Protect'

As the UN celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2005, leaders met to decide how to make it more relevant. They agreed on several new initiatives:

• Creation of a Peacebuilding Commission.
• Acceptance of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P): The idea that the international community should act if a government fails to protect its citizens from atrocities.
• Establishment of a Human Rights Council.
• Agreements to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (now succeeded by the Sustainable Development Goals).

7. Other Important International Agencies

Beyond the main UN organs, several specialized agencies play crucial roles in global governance:

• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): Promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy and prevents its use for military purposes.
• World Trade Organization (WTO): Sets rules for global trade.
• International Monetary Fund (IMF): Oversees the global financial system and provides loans to countries in financial crisis.
• World Bank: Provides long-term loans for development projects in poorer countries.
• Amnesty International & Human Rights Watch: These are prominent NGOs that campaign for human rights globally and put pressure on governments to stop abuses.

8. The UN in a Unipolar World

Can the UN stand up to a superpower like the USA? Since the end of the Cold War, the US has been the dominant force. The UN is physically located in New York, the US provides a massive portion of the UN budget, and many UN staff are American. While the UN can occasionally restrain US actions through international pressure, it often finds it difficult to act against US interests. However, the UN remains a vital space where the US and the rest of the world can negotiate and find common ground.

Summary & Key Takeaways

• Necessity: International organisations are essential for managing global interdependencies and resolving conflicts through dialogue.
• UN Core: The United Nations, established in 1945, is the primary international organisation today, though it evolved from the failed League of Nations.
• P5 and Veto: The Security Council's permanent members (USA, UK, Russia, France, China) hold the veto power, which is a source of both stability and intense criticism.
• The Need for Reform: The UN needs to update its structure, specifically the Security Council, to reflect the modern world rather than the world of 1945.
• Diverse Roles: Beyond security, the UN and its agencies (like WHO, UNESCO, and IAEA) handle everything from health and education to nuclear safety.
• India’s Role: India is a major contender for a permanent seat in the Security Council due to its population, economic size, and contribution to UN peacekeeping missions.