NCERT Explained: Class VII History, Chapter 3 - Delhi: 12th to 15th Century

When we think of the capital of India today, we immediately think of the bustling metropolis of Delhi. However, did you know that Delhi only became an important political and commercial center in the 12th century? Before that, it was just one of many regions under various local rulers. In this post, we will explore the fascinating journey of how Delhi transformed into the seat of powerful empires, specifically focusing on the Delhi Sultanate, as covered in Class VII History, Chapter 3.

Introduction to the Topic

The history of Delhi as a significant capital begins with the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated in the middle of the 12th century by the Chauhans (also known as Chahamanas) of Ajmer. Under these Rajput dynasties, Delhi became an important commercial center. Many rich Jaina merchants lived in the city and constructed several temples. Coins minted here, called Dehliwal, had a wide circulation. This period set the stage for the Delhi Sultanate.

The transformation of Delhi into a capital that controlled vast areas of the subcontinent started with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century. It wasn't just one dynasty, but a succession of five dynasties that together are known as the Delhi Sultanate: the Slave Dynasty (Early Turkish Rulers), the Khalji Dynasty, the Tughluq Dynasty, the Sayyid Dynasty, and the Lodi Dynasty. Understanding this era is crucial because it laid the foundation for the administrative and cultural landscape of medieval India.

Key Concepts Explained

To understand how these rulers managed such a massive territory, we need to look at several key aspects of their governance, expansion, and societal structure.

1. Finding Out About the Delhi Sultans

How do we know so much about people who lived 800 years ago? While inscriptions, coins, and architecture provide a lot of information, the most valuable sources are histories known as Tarikh (singular) or Tawarikh (plural). These were written in Persian, which was the official language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.

• The Authors: The authors of Tawarikh were learned men—secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers—who both recounted events and advised rulers on governance, emphasizing the importance of just rule.
• The Circle of Justice: They taught that a king cannot survive without soldiers, soldiers need salaries, salaries come from revenue collected from peasants, and peasants can pay revenue only when they are prosperous and happy. This promoted the idea of justice and honest governance.
• Limitations: It is important to remember that these authors lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and hardly ever in villages. They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards. Furthermore, their ideas about the "ideal social order" were based on birthright and gender distinctions, which were not always shared by everyone.

2. The Case of Raziyya Sultan

One of the most remarkable figures of this period was Raziyya Sultan, the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. In 1236, she became the Sultan because she was more able and qualified than all her brothers. However, she was removed from the throne in 1240. Why? Because the chronicler of the age, Minhaj-i Siraj, though he recognized her talent, felt that a queen's rule went against the "ideal social order" created by God. The nobles were also uncomfortable with her acting independently. This highlights the rigid social and gender norms of the 13th century.

3. Expansion: From Garrison Town to Empire

In the early 13th century, the control of the Delhi Sultans rarely went beyond heavily fortified towns occupied by garrisons (soldiers). A Garrison Town is a fortified settlement with soldiers. The areas surrounding these towns, called the Hinterland, provided goods and services but were often difficult to control.

The expansion of the Sultanate occurred in two phases:

• Internal Frontier: These campaigns aimed at consolidating the hinterlands of the garrison towns. This involved clearing forests in the Ganga-Yamuna doab and expelling hunter-gatherers and pastoralists. These lands were given to peasants, and agriculture was encouraged.
• External Frontier: Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji and culminated with Muhammad Tughluq. In these campaigns, Sultanate armies captured elephants, horses, and slaves and carried away precious metals. By the end of Muhammad Tughluq's reign, the Sultanate's armies had marched across a large part of the subcontinent.

4. Administration and Consolidation

To govern such a vast empire, the Sultans needed reliable governors and administrators. Instead of appointing aristocrats and landed chieftains, early Delhi Sultans (especially Iltutmish) preferred their special slaves purchased for military service, called Bandagan in Persian. Since they were totally dependent on their master, the Sultan could trust and rely upon them.

The Iqta System

The Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military commanders as governors of territories of varying sizes. These lands were called Iqta and their holder was called Iqtadar or Muqti.

• Duties of Muqtis: Their duty was to lead military campaigns and maintain law and order in their iqtas. In exchange for their military services, the muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments as salary.
• Checks and Balances: To ensure they didn't become too powerful, the office of Muqti was made non-inheritable, and they were assigned iqtas for a short period before being transferred. Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue collected.

5. Comparison: Alauddin Khalji vs. Muhammad Tughluq

Both rulers faced the massive challenge of Mongol invasions from Central Asia. However, their strategies differed greatly:

• Alauddin Khalji: He took defensive measures. He built a new garrison town named Siri for his soldiers. He controlled the prices of goods in Delhi so that soldiers could live on their salaries. His administrative measures were quite successful and praised by chroniclers.
• Muhammad Tughluq: He took offensive measures. Rather than building a new town, he emptied the oldest of the four cities of Delhi (Dehli-i Kuhna) and sent the residents to the new capital of Daulatabad in the south. He introduced a "token currency" made of cheap metals, which failed because people saved their gold and silver and forged the new coins. His administrative measures created complications, but he was also the first Sultan to plan a campaign to capture Mongol territory.

Summary & Key Takeaways

The Delhi Sultanate was a pivotal era that changed the face of India. Here are the main points to remember:

• Dynasties: Five main dynasties ruled from 1206 to 1526 (Slave, Khalji, Tughluq, Sayyid, and Lodi).
• Sources: Tawarikh (Persian histories) are our primary source of information, though they represent an elite urban perspective.
• Expansion: The Sultanate expanded from small garrison towns to a subcontinental empire through internal and external frontier campaigns.
• Governance: The Iqta system was the backbone of administration, where Muqtis managed land and military duties.
• Gender and Power: The reign of Raziyya Sultan shows the early struggle between merit and traditional social structures.
• End of the Sultanate: By the 15th and 16th centuries, the Sultanate weakened, leading to the rise of new states like Jaunpur, Bengal, and eventually the Mughal Empire.