NCERT Explained: Class VII History, Chapter 2 - New Kings and Kingdoms: The Rise of Early Medieval Dynasties

Introduction to the Topic

The history of India between the seventh and twelfth centuries is a vibrant tapestry of emerging powers, shifting alliances, and architectural brilliance. This period marks the transition from the ancient era to the early medieval period, characterized by the rise of several powerful new dynasties across the Indian subcontinent. In Class VII History, Chapter 2 - New Kings and Kingdoms, we explore how these dynasties came to power, how they administered their vast territories, and the magnificent legacy they left behind in the form of temples and inscriptions.

Understanding this era is crucial because it laid the foundation for the political and social structures that would define India for centuries. We see the emergence of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas, and Chahamanas (later known as Chauhans). This chapter doesn't just talk about battles; it delves into the lives of the people, the importance of land grants, the role of temples as social hubs, and the unique democratic experiments in village administration.

Key Concepts Explained

1. The Emergence of New Dynasties

By the seventh century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subcontinent. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas. These samantas were expected to bring gifts for their kings, be present at their courts, and provide them with military support. However, as samantas gained power and wealth, they began to declare themselves maha-samanta or maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a circle or region). Some even asserted their independence from their overlords.

A famous example is that of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially, they were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukyan overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). This ritual, performed with the help of Brahmanas, was thought to lead to the 'rebirth' of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth. This shows that political power was not strictly limited to those born into royal or warrior castes; it could be acquired through military might and religious validation.

2. Administration in the Kingdoms

The new kings often adopted high-sounding titles such as Maharaja-adhiraja (great king, king of kings) and Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds). Despite these grand titles, they often shared power with their samantas as well as with associations of peasants, traders, and Brahmanas.

Resource Collection: Resources were obtained from the producers—that is, peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans—who were often persuaded or compelled to surrender part of what they produced. Sometimes these were claimed as 'rent' due to a lord who asserted that he owned the land. Trade also provided a significant source of revenue. These resources were used to finance the king’s establishment, as well as for the construction of temples and forts. They were also used to fight wars, which were, in turn, expected to lead to the acquisition of wealth in the form of plunder and access to land and trade routes.

The Functionaries: The functionaries for collecting revenue were generally recruited from influential families, and positions were often hereditary. This was true for the army as well. In many cases, close relatives of the king held these positions.

3. Prashastis and Land Grants

Prashastis contain details that might not be literally true but tell us how rulers wanted to depict themselves—as valiant, victorious warriors, for example. These were composed by learned Brahmanas, who occasionally helped in the administration. A famous prashasti written in Sanskrit and found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits of Nagabhata, a Pratihara king.

Kings often rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land. These were recorded on copper plates, which were given to those who received the land. These plates were often held together by a ring with the royal seal, to indicate that it was an official document. These grants usually listed what the recipient could collect from the land, including various taxes and the right to build buildings or plant trees.

4. Warfare for Wealth

During this period, ruling dynasties were often based in a specific region but tried to control other areas. A particularly prized target was the city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley. For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj. Because there were three 'parties' in this long-drawn-out conflict, historians often describe it as the tripartite struggle.

Rulers also tried to demonstrate their power and resources by building large temples. So, when they attacked one another’s kingdoms, they often chose to target temples, which were sometimes \textremely rich. One such ruler is Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan. He raided the subcontinent 17 times (1000-1027 CE), targeting wealthy temples, including that of Somnath in Gujarat. Much of the wealth he carried away was used to create a splendid capital city at Ghazni.

Other kings who engaged in warfare included the Chahamanas (Chauhans), who ruled over the region around Delhi and Ajmer. Their most famous ruler was Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year in 1192.

5. A Closer Look: The Cholas

The Cholas rose to power in the South. A family known as the Muttaraiyar held power in the Kaveri delta. They were subordinate to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya, who belonged to the ancient chiefly family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century. He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudhini there.

Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture: The big temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda-cholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, are architectural and sculptural marvels. Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements which grew around them. These were centres of craft production. Temples were also endowed with land by rulers as well as by others. The produce of this land went into maintaining all the specialists who worked at the temple—priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, etc. In other words, temples were not only places of worship; they were the hub of economic, social, and cultural life.

Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most distinctive. Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. While most images were of deities, sometimes images were made of devotees as well.

Agriculture and Irrigation: Many of the achievements of the Cholas were made possible through new developments in agriculture. The river Kaveri branches off into several small channels before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. These channels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their banks. Water from the channels also provides the necessary moisture for agriculture, particularly the cultivation of rice. Although agriculture had developed earlier in other parts of Tamil Nadu, it was only from the fifth or sixth century that this area was opened up for large-scale cultivation. Embarkments were built to prevent flooding and canals were constructed to carry water to the fields.

6. The Administration of the Chola Empire

How was the administration organized? Settlements of peasants, known as ur, became prosperous with the spread of irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages formed larger units called nadu. The village council and the nadu performed several administrative functions including dispensing justice and collecting taxes.

Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu under the supervision of the central Chola government. The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like Muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings) and Araiyar (chief) as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre.

Types of Land: Chola inscriptions mention several categories of land:

• Vellanvagai: land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
• Brahmadeya: land gifted to Brahmanas.
• Shalabhoga: land for the maintenance of a school.
• Devadana / Tirunamattukkani: land gifted to temples.
• Pallichchhandam: land donated to Jaina institutions.

The Sabha: Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. These assemblies worked very efficiently. Their decisions were recorded in detail in inscriptions, often on the stone walls of temples. Associations of traders known as nagaram also occasionally performed administrative functions in towns.

Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil Nadu, provide details of the way in which the sabha was organized. The sabha had separate committees to look after irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc. Names of those eligible to be members of these committees were written on small tickets of palm leaf. These tickets were put into an earthenware pot, from which a young boy was asked to take out the tickets, one by one, for each committee. This indicates a sophisticated, quasi-democratic method of local governance.

Summary & Key Takeaways

• Rise of Samantas: Local landlords grew powerful and often declared independence, becoming new kings like the Rashtrakutas.
• Legitimacy: Rulers used rituals (like hiranya-garbha) and prashastis to establish their status and claim to the throne.
• Taxation: Revenue was collected from peasants, artisans, and traders to fund the king’s court, wars, and temple construction.
• Tripartite Struggle: The Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas fought for control over Kanauj for centuries.
• Chola Excellence: The Cholas are famous for their centralized yet locally active administration, magnificent bronze statues, and grand temples like those in Thanjavur.
• Village Governance: The Chola administration utilized specialized committees (Sabha) and systems like the 'pot-ticket' method for local management.
• Land Classification: Land was meticulously categorized based on its use and the status of its owners.