NCERT Explained: Class IX Political Science, Chapter 4 - Working of Institutions

Introduction to the Topic

In a democracy, the government is not just about a single leader making all the decisions. Instead, it is a complex system of various organs and departments working together to serve the people. This chapter of Class IX Political Science, Working of Institutions, takes us behind the scenes of the Indian government. It explains how major policy decisions are made, who makes them, and how various institutions like the Parliament, the Executive, and the Judiciary play their parts in governing the country.

Understanding these institutions is crucial because it helps us see that democracy is not just about voting; it is about the procedure, the rules, and the accountability that follow. We will explore how these institutions interact, balance each other, and ensure that the country runs according to the Constitution. Whether it is passing a new law, implementing a welfare scheme, or settling a legal dispute, every action follows a specific institutional path.

Key Concepts Explained

1. How is a Major Policy Decision Taken?

To understand how institutions work, we often look at a case study. The NCERT textbook uses the example of the Office Memorandum issued on August 13, 1990. This memorandum announced that 27% of vacancies in civil posts and services under the Government of India would be reserved for the Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC).

• The Decision Makers: While the memorandum was signed by a joint secretary, the decision involved the entire top tier of the government. The President made the announcement in his address to Parliament; the Prime Minister took the decision in the Cabinet; and the Parliament was informed of this intention.
• The Mandal Commission: This decision was based on the recommendations of the Second Backward Classes Commission, headed by B.P. Mandal. It was appointed in 1979 to identify backward classes and suggest steps for their advancement.
• The Dispute: Such a major decision led to widespread protests and counter-protests. Some felt it was necessary for equality, while others felt it would hamper merit. Eventually, the Supreme Court of India settled the dispute in the Indira Sawhney and others vs. Union of India case, upholding the government's decision but asking for the exclusion of the 'creamy layer' (well-to-do people) from the benefits.

2. Why Do We Need Institutions?

Governing a country involves various activities like providing security, education, and health facilities to the citizens. It also involves collecting taxes and spending money on administration and welfare. To perform these tasks, several arrangements are made in all modern democracies. These arrangements are called Institutions.

Working with institutions is not easy because it involves rules, regulations, and meetings. This can often lead to delays and complications. However, these delays are useful in a democracy because they allow for wider consultation and prevent hasty, ill-considered decisions. Institutions make it difficult to have a good decision taken very quickly, but they also make it equally difficult to rush through a bad decision.

3. The Parliament: The Supreme Forum

The Parliament is the supreme legislative body of India. In all democracies, an assembly of elected representatives exercises supreme political authority on behalf of the people. In India, this national assembly is called Parliament. At the state level, it is called the Legislature or Legislative Assembly.

Why do we need a Parliament?

• Parliament is the final authority for making laws in any country.
• It exercises control over those who run the government. No decision can be taken without the support of Parliament.
• It controls all the money that the government has (the Budget).
• It is the highest forum for discussion and debate on public issues and national policy.

The Two Houses of Parliament:

• Rajya Sabha (Council of States): The Upper House, usually elected indirectly and representing the states of India. It has a maximum of 250 members.
• Lok Sabha (House of the People): The Lower House, directly elected by the people. It has 543 members. While the Rajya Sabha has some special powers regarding states, the Lok Sabha is more powerful in most matters, especially money bills and controlling the Council of Ministers.

4. The Political Executive

At different levels of any government, we find functionaries who take day-to-day decisions but do not exercise supreme power on behalf of the people. All these functionaries are collectively known as the Executive. They are called the executive because they are in charge of the 'execution' of the policies of the government.

Two types of Executives:

• Political Executive: These are ministers elected by the people for a specific period (usually five years). They take the big decisions and are accountable to the people.
• Permanent Executive: These are civil servants (like IAS officers) who are appointed on a long-term basis. They remain in office even when the ruling party changes. They assist the political executive in carrying out day-to-day administration.

Why is the Minister more powerful than the Civil Servant? In a democracy, the will of the people is supreme. The minister, being elected by the people, represents that will. Though the civil servant may be more educated or expert in the subject, the minister decides the overall framework and objectives of the policy.

5. Prime Minister and Council of Ministers

The Prime Minister is the most important political institution in the country. The President appoints the Prime Minister, but the President cannot appoint just anyone. The President appoints the leader of the majority party or the coalition of parties that commands a majority in the Lok Sabha.

The Council of Ministers: This is the official name for the body that includes all the ministers. It usually has 60 to 80 ministers of different ranks:

• Cabinet Ministers: Usually top-level leaders of the ruling party who are in charge of major ministries like Defense, Home, and Finance.
• Ministers of State with Independent Charge: Usually in charge of smaller ministries.
• Ministers of State: Attached to and required to assist Cabinet Ministers.

The Prime Minister chairs Cabinet meetings and coordinates the work of different departments. His/her decisions are final in case of disagreements between departments. If the Prime Minister quits, the entire ministry quits.

6. The President

While the Prime Minister is the Head of the Government, the President is the Head of the State. In our political system, the Head of the State exercises only nominal powers. The President’s functions are mainly ceremonial. He or she supervises the overall functioning of all the political institutions in the country so that they operate in harmony to achieve the objectives of the state.

The President is not elected directly by the people. Instead, the elected Members of Parliament (MPs) and the elected Members of the Legislative Assemblies (MLAs) elect the President. All laws and major policy decisions of the government are issued in the name of the President. However, the President exercises these powers only on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

7. The Judiciary

All the courts at different levels in a country put together are called the Judiciary. The Indian judiciary consists of the Supreme Court for the entire nation, High Courts in the states, and District Courts at the local level. India has an integrated judiciary, meaning the Supreme Court controls the judicial administration in the country.

Independence of the Judiciary: This means that the judiciary is not under the control of the legislature or the executive. The judges do not act on the direction of the government or according to the wishes of the party in power. This is why all modern democracies have courts that are independent of the legislature and the executive.

The Supreme Court and the High Courts have the power to interpret the Constitution of the country. They can declare any law of the legislature or action of the executive invalid if they find such a law or action is against the Constitution. This is known as Judicial Review.

Summary & Key Takeaways

• Institutions: Democracy works through institutions like Parliament, the Executive, and the Judiciary. They ensure decisions are made following set rules.
• Parliament: It is the supreme law-making body. The Lok Sabha holds more power in financial matters and controls the Council of Ministers.
• Executive: Divided into Political (ministers) and Permanent (civil servants). The Political Executive is accountable to the people.
• Prime Minister: The real head of the government who leads the Cabinet and coordinates major decisions.
• President: The ceremonial head of the state who acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
• Judiciary: An independent and integrated system that protects the Constitution and fundamental rights through judicial review.
• Checks and Balances: Each institution monitors the others, ensuring that no single branch of government becomes too powerful.