NCERT Explained: Class X Political Science, Chapter 6 - Understanding Political Parties in a Democracy

Introduction to the Topic

Have you ever wondered why certain names and symbols, like the 'Lotus', 'Hand', or 'Elephant', are so visible during elections? Why do newspapers and TV channels constantly talk about what these groups are doing? These are political parties, and for most ordinary citizens, democracy is synonymous with them. In our daily lives, we often encounter strong opinions about these parties – some praise them, while others blame them for all the problems in our country. This love-hate relationship is common because political parties are one of the most visible institutions in a democracy. But what exactly are they? Why do we need them? And what would happen if they didn't exist? This chapter from your Class X NCERT Political Science textbook, 'Democratic Politics – II', delves into these fundamental questions. Understanding political parties is crucial because they are the vehicles through which democratic governance is carried out. They represent different sections of society, contest elections, and form governments that make laws for the entire country. Let's embark on a journey to demystify the world of political parties, exploring their functions, the different types of party systems, and the challenges they face in a vibrant democracy like India.

Key Concepts Explained

What is a Political Party and Why Do We Need Them?

At its core, a political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promoting the collective good. Since people can have different views on what is good for all, parties try to persuade people why their policies are better than others. They seek to implement these policies by winning popular support through elections.

Thus, any political party has three main components:

• The Leaders: The active, high-profile members who make the key decisions and are chosen as candidates for elections.
• The Active Members: These are the people who are involved in party work, attending meetings, and campaigning for the leaders. They are the backbone of the party.
• The Followers: These are the ordinary citizens who believe in the party's ideology and policies and vote for it during elections.

But why are they so essential? Imagine a situation without political parties. Every candidate in an election would be independent. They would only be responsible for their own constituency and not for how the entire country is run. The government formed would be highly unstable, as it would be just a collection of individuals with no common platform. This is where parties step in to perform several critical functions:

1. Contesting Elections: This is the most visible function. Parties select their candidates, give them a party 'ticket', and campaign for them. The process of selecting candidates may vary from party to party and country to country.
2. Putting Forward Policies and Programmes: Parties present their vision for the country to the voters. They articulate a set of policies on various issues like economy, foreign policy, and social welfare. A government is expected to implement the programmes of the winning party.
3. Making Laws: When parties win elections and form the government, they play a decisive role in making laws for the country. Laws are debated and passed in the legislature, and since most members belong to a party, they follow the direction of the party leadership.
4. Forming and Running Governments: The party that wins a majority of seats in an election forms the government. It recruits leaders, trains them, and then makes them ministers to run the government in the way they want.
5. Playing the Role of Opposition: Parties that lose the election play the crucial role of the opposition. They keep a check on the ruling party by criticising its failures and wrong policies. By voicing different views, they ensure the government does not become autocratic.
6. Shaping Public Opinion: Parties raise and highlight important issues facing the country. Through rallies, press conferences, and media campaigns, they shape how people think about these issues. Often, the opinions that crystallize in society are along the lines that parties take.
7. Providing Access to Government Machinery and Welfare Schemes: For an ordinary citizen, it is often easier to approach a local party leader than a government officer. This is why people feel close to parties even when they do not fully trust them. Parties act as an intermediary between the citizens and the government.

How Many Parties Should We Have? Exploring Party Systems

The question of 'how many parties' is not one we can answer definitively for all countries. The number of parties evolves over a long time, depending on the nature of society, its social and regional divisions, its history of politics, and its system of elections. Broadly, we can identify three types of party systems across the world.

1. One-Party System

In some countries, only one party is allowed to control and run the government. These are called one-party systems. A classic example is the Communist Party of China. Although legally speaking people are free to form political parties, the electoral system does not permit free competition for power. We cannot consider this system a good option because it is not a democratic option. Any democratic system must allow at least two parties to compete in elections and provide a fair chance for the competing parties to come to power.

2. Two-Party System

In some countries, power usually changes between two main parties. Several other parties may exist, contest elections, and win a few seats, but only the two main parties have a serious chance of winning a majority to form a government. Examples include the United States of America (Democrats and Republicans) and the United Kingdom (Conservative and Labour Parties). This system can provide stability, as a clear majority is often formed.

3. Multi-Party System

When several parties compete for power, and more than two parties have a reasonable chance of coming to power either on their own strength or in alliance with others, we call it a multi-party system. India is a prime example of a multi-party system. In such a system, the government is often formed by various parties coming together in a coalition. This system allows for a variety of interests and opinions to enjoy political representation. For a vast and socially diverse country like India, a multi-party system is perhaps the most natural fit. When different parties form an alliance to contest elections and win power, it is called a front or an alliance. For instance, in India, we have seen major alliances like the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), and the Left Front.

National vs. State Parties in India

In a federal country like India, we have parties that are present in several or all units of the federation, and parties that are present in only one of the federal units. This gives rise to two types of parties: national parties and state (or regional) parties. The Election Commission of India has laid down detailed criteria for a party to be recognized as a national or a state party.

A party is recognized as a National Party if it meets one of the following conditions:

• It secures at least six percent of the total valid votes in a Lok Sabha election or Assembly elections in four states, AND wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha.
• It wins at least two percent of the total seats in the Lok Sabha from at least three different states.

Examples of national parties in India include the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), Indian National Congress (INC), and others that meet these criteria at any given time.

A party is recognized as a State Party (or Regional Party) if it meets one of the following conditions:

• It secures at least six percent of the total valid votes in an election to the state legislative assembly, AND wins at least two seats in that assembly.
• It wins at least three percent of the total seats in the legislative assembly or 3 seats, whichever is more.

Examples include the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu, the Shiv Sena in Maharashtra, and the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) in Delhi and Punjab. Over the last few decades, the number and strength of these regional parties have expanded, making Indian politics more diverse and representative.

Challenges Faced by Political Parties

While parties are essential for democracy, they also face significant criticism and challenges that they must overcome to function effectively. These challenges are not just in India but are common in many democracies around the world.

1. Lack of Internal Democracy

One of the biggest challenges is the concentration of power in the hands of one or a few leaders at the top. Parties often do not keep membership registers, do not hold regular organisational elections, and do not share information internally. Ordinary members have little to no say in major decisions. As a result, leaders who disagree with the top leadership find it difficult to continue in the party, leading to a culture where personal loyalty to leaders becomes more important than loyalty to party principles.

2. The Challenge of Dynastic Succession

Related to the lack of internal democracy is the tendency for top positions in many parties to be controlled by members of one family. This is unfair to other members of the party and is also bad for democracy. People who do not have adequate experience or popular support can come to occupy positions of power simply because they belong to a particular family. This trend is visible across India, from national to regional parties.

3. The Growing Role of Money and Muscle Power

Since parties are focused only on winning elections, they tend to use shortcuts to win. They often nominate candidates who have or can raise a lot of money. The role of 'muscle power', using intimidation or force, is also a concern in some areas. Rich people and companies who give funds to the parties tend to have influence on the policies and decisions of the party, which can compromise the democratic principle of governance for the people.

4. Lack of Meaningful Choice for Voters

In recent years, there has been a decline in the ideological differences among major parties in many parts of the world. For example, the difference between the Labour and Conservative parties in Britain is very little. They agree on more fundamental aspects but differ only in details on how policies are to be framed and implemented. In India too, the differences among all the major parties on economic policies are often minimal. Voters who want to see genuinely different policies sometimes do not have a meaningful choice available to them.

How Can Parties Be Reformed?

Confronted with these challenges, a natural question arises: how can we reform political parties? In India, several efforts and suggestions have been made to reform parties and their leaders.

Recent Efforts and Laws:

• The Anti-Defection Law: The Constitution was amended to prevent elected MLAs and MPs from changing parties. This was done because many elected representatives were indulging in defection in order to become ministers or for cash rewards. Now, the law says that if any MLA or MP changes parties, he or she will lose the seat in the legislature.
• Affidavits on Assets and Criminal Cases: The Supreme Court passed an order to reduce the influence of money and criminals. Now, it is mandatory for every candidate who contests elections to file an affidavit giving details of their property and criminal cases pending against them. This information is made available to the public, allowing voters to make an informed choice.
• Organisational Elections: The Election Commission has passed an order making it necessary for political parties to hold their organisational elections and file their income tax returns.

Suggestions for Further Reform:

Besides these, many suggestions are often put forward to reform political parties, though they have not yet been accepted as law:

• A law to regulate internal affairs: It should be made compulsory for political parties to maintain a register of their members, to follow their own constitution, to have an independent authority to act as a judge in case of party disputes, and to hold open elections to the highest posts.
• Reservation for Women: It is suggested that parties should be mandated to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third, to women candidates. There is a proposal for a similar quota for women in the decision-making bodies of the party.
• State Funding of Elections: There is a strong suggestion that the government should give parties money to support their election expenses. This support could be given in kind (e.g., petrol, paper, telephone) or in cash on the basis of the votes secured by the party in the last election. This aims to reduce the influence of big money on politics.

Ultimately, while legal reforms can play a role, the quality of democracy depends on the degree of public participation. It is the pressure from ordinary citizens, through petitions, publicity, and agitations, that can force political parties to reform.

Summary & Key Takeaways

Here’s a quick recap of what we've learned about political parties:

• Definition: A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections, hold power, and implement policies for the collective good.
• Core Functions: Parties contest elections, form governments, make laws, play opposition, shape public opinion, and provide citizens access to the government.
• Party Systems: Democracies can have one-party, two-party, or multi-party systems. India has a multi-party system that allows for diverse representation, often leading to coalition governments.
• Types of Parties in India: Based on their reach and electoral performance, parties are recognized by the Election Commission as either National or State (Regional) parties.
• Major Challenges: Parties face challenges like a lack of internal democracy, dynastic succession, the influence of money and muscle power, and offering a lack of meaningful choice to voters.
• Path to Reform: Reforms like the anti-defection law and mandatory affidavits have been implemented. Further suggestions include regulating internal party affairs, reserving seats for women, and state funding of elections. Public pressure remains the most powerful tool for reform.

Political parties are imperfect but indispensable. They are the instruments through which modern democracy functions. By understanding their workings, their importance, and their flaws, we, as citizens, can engage more meaningfully in the democratic process and push for a more accountable and responsive political system.